Motivational Appeals



The Tools of Motivation and Emotion

Process premises target the psychological process that provide impetus for most people, from the most basic to the most sophisticated. 

Needs - The First Process Premise
Packard's "Compelling Needs"
  • Emotional Security
  • Reassurance of Worth
  • Ego-Gratification
  • Creative Outlets
  • Love Objects
  • Sense of Power
  • Sense of Roots
  • Immortality
Maslow's Hierarchy
  • Self-actualization
  • Esteem
  • Belonging
  • Safety
  • Physiologitcal

Emotions - The Second Process Premise
  • Fear
  • Guilt
  • Anger
  • Pride
  • Happiness/Joy

Attitudes - The Third Process Premise
Attitudes, Beliefs and Opinions

The Functions of Attitudes
  • Cognitive influences
  • Emotional influences
  • Behavioral influences

Consistency - The Fourth Process Premise
Cognitive Dissonance Theory





Sources of Dissonance
  • Loss of Group Prestige
  • Economic Loss
  • Loss of Personal Prestige
  • Uncertainty of Prediction

Sources of Consonance
  • Reassurance of Security
  • Demonstration of Predictability
  • The Use of Rewards

Logical Appeals

Warrants
  • They explain why the grounds prove the point and analyze and summarize the grounds.
  • The warrant is the "because" statement.
  • When it is evident that the evidence proves the point, it's called the implied warrant.
  • Inductive reasoning - working from specific evidence to a general understanding.
  • Deductive reasoning - working from a generalized body of evidence to reach a specific example or understanding.
  • An error in reasoning is called a fallacy.

Reasoning and their Fallacies
Parallel Reasoning - More often called an analogy, it's used for comparison. Since similar circumstances may have similar outcomes, parallel reasoning leads one to assume or predict outcomes.
  • This is used to compare and contrast as well, using what we know to help others understand what they don't
  • Parallel reasoning uses literal analogies and figurative analogies.
  • Syntax may include like, as, similar, resembles, compared to, by contrast...
  • This becomes fallacious reasoning when the analogy is false (false analogy), the apples to oranges mistake.
Examples:
  • Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit in the head in order to make them work, so must employees.
  • Government is like business, so just as business must be sensitive primarily to the bottom line, so also must government. (But the objectives of government and business are completely different, so probably they will have to meet different criteria.)
  • Construction workers use blueprints to guide them as they build. Doctors use X-rays and MRI images as diagnostic aids. Therefore, presenters should use PowerPoint slides as teleprompters during live-audience presentations. This argument, of course, is the fallacy of "False Analogy". Why? Blueprints and MRIs are created as visual aids for the construction worker and doctor. A presenter's visual aids are intended for the audience. The comparison, therefore, is invalid.
  • Subsidized healthcare is socialism.


Generalization
- Sometimes drawn from extended parallel reasoning, generalizations involve making predictions, classifications and descriptions. It's also called reasoning by example.
  • Generalization is indiscriminitive, reasoning that what is true about one member of a group is true about the rest.
  • Syntax includes we have concluded, it is generally so, usually so, normally so...
  • This becomes a hasty generalization when there are too few cases counted toward the generalization, so one jumps to conclusions.
Examples:
  • All Mormons are polygamists.
  • All men are pigs.
  • All democrats are tree-huggers.

Reasoning by Definition
- Breaking down something by what it means, a deductive process.
  • Syntax includes it follows that, its necessarily so, so by definition...
  • This becomes a sweeping generalization when the definition is too rigid in include relevant exceptions.
  • fallacious syntax includes always, never, in every case, certainly, necessarily, categorically...
So, if all men are pigs, and Chris is a man, therefore he must also be a pig.
By that definition that would make me a tree-hugging, post-polygamous swine.


Reasoning by Sign - what I call symptomatic reasoning. Recognizing how artifacts or actions are associate with related events. Summativity v. nonsummativity. Inductive reasoning, very close to causal reasoning.
  • Sytnax includes language that deals with factors.
  • This becomes a false sign when the link between the indications and the correlating events fails. Supersititions are typical false signs.



Causal or Cause to Effect Reasoning
- leads to . Much can go wrong with this type of reasoning.

  • A causal link has to be proved with a specific agent of cause.
  • Syntax includes causes, leads to, produces, activates, provokes, geneerates, brings about, results in...
  • There could be mulitple causation, where the arguer has to sort and prioritize most influential causes.
  • However, there can also be unrelated events that contribute to the issue.
There are a number of fallacies related to causal resoning:
  • This becomes oversimplification where one ignores other causes, eliminating others to promote their own agenda of cause.
  • Correlation v. Causation - connecting two events due to proximity.
  • Post hoc ergo propter hoc reasoning, meaning before , therefore because of , just because somehting happened before something else does not mean it is the casue of the outcome.
Example: "I can't help but think that you are the cause of this problem; we never had any problem with the furnace until you moved into the apartment." The manager of the apartment house, on no stated grounds other than the temporal priority of the new tenant's occupancy, has assumed that the tenant's presence has some causal relationship to the furnace's becoming faulty.
  • Slippery Slope propses a series of events was caused by one event (the Butterfly effect) without ever showing how it's linked. I had two debaters that no matter what the resolution linked their warrant to total mutual nuclear destruction.

Reasoning from a Dillema
- It's the either/or position of reasoning. If you're not for us, you're against us.
  • Syntax includes either, or, must choose betwee, pros/cons, costs/gains...
  • The fallacy is in forcing the dichotomy, not everything is for or against the proposition. When you make it seem there are only two choices when in fact there are more to consider, you are guilty of forcing the dichotomy.
  • The complex question is an example of this when there is a major hidden presumption - Have you stopped beating your wife?

Arguing from Authority - takes an authority's opinion, states their qulifications and then states what the authority said.
Syntax includes in the words of, as was established by, according to, research shows, studies show...
Not all sources are valid authorities.
There's always room to question even the brightrest in the field - QUESTION AUTHORITY
Blind obedience to authority is not cirtical thinking - don't get me started on this.
The fallacy is the appeal to authority, using celebrity to persuade is an example of this - take John Voight for example.

Motivational Persuade Outline Template


This is a sample outline for a typical motivational persuade based on Monroe's Motivated Sequence. Use this in constructing your presentation and include where you would integrate your images for support.


Topic:
Specific Purpose:
Thesis Statement:

I. Introduction
A. Attention-Getting Step:
B. Tie to Audience:
C. Credibility Material:
D. Thesis & Preview: (The preview includes your three platforms)

(Transition into Body of Speech)

II. Body
A. Main Point #1 -- Need

1.(Statement of Need for Action)
a.(Description of Problem)
b.(Signs, Symptoms, Effects of Problem)
c.(Example, Narrative, or Testimony)

2. (Importance of Problem)
a.(Extent of Problem)
b.(Facts/Statistics)
c.(Expert Testimony)

3. (Who is Affected)
a. (Facts/Statistics)
b. (Example/Narrative)

(Transition into Main Point 2)

B. Main Point #2 (Present Solution that Satisfies Need)
1. (Description of Solution)
a. (How Solution Satisfies Need)
b. (How Solution can be Implemented)
(1) (Plan of Action)
(2) (Steps of Plan)
(i) (Step 1 of Plan)
(ii) (Step 2 of Plan)

(Transition into Main Point 3)

C. Main Point #3 (Visualize Results)
1. (Describe Expected Results of Action)
2. (Describe Consequences of Inaction)

(Transition into Conclusion)

III. Conclusion
A. Summary:
B. Tie Back to Attention-Getting Step:
C. Call for Action:


Checklist:
I have analyzed my audience on this topic & have determined they are ready for action.

I have narrowed my topic to focus upon a problem that needs to be solved with action

I have clearly stated the purpose of my speech.

My thesis statement is written as a complete declarative sentence.

My introduction focuses attention, establishes my credibility, & previews my message.

The first main point in my speech establishes the need for action.

The second main point in my speech details a plan of action that satisfies the need.

The third main point in my speech visualizes the results of action and the consequences of inaction.

My integrated visuals support my points but do not draw away from my delivery.

Image Impact

Ten p.m. the night before, my cell rings. The number is that of a producer I work with in San Francisco. He's asking if I could be in a small town south of Fresno before sunrise to shoot a cotton harvest. The best directions he could give me were GPS coordinates, six hundred miles away.





























A Primer for iPhoto

From MacZealots.com, Emily Hambidge

Digital photos are one of the most common reasons that people use their computers. Whether it’s emailing Grandma the last picture of Susie’s ballet pageant or printing this year’s Christmas card picture, computers have made sharing our memories easier than ever. The problem with digital photography lies in how to organize it. There are a million sites such as Shutterfly and Flickr that offer a solution for sharing your photos online, but what about keeping them organized on your Mac? Every Mac comes pre-installed with iPhoto as part of the iLife suite.

In this article, the first in a new series of articles for Mac beginners, we will talk about how to get the most out of iPhoto. iPhoto has many of the features that you have come to expect from Apple’s application. You can rate your photos, organize them into different albums, create slideshows and search for photos with an iTunes-like interface. The best part about iPhoto is how easy it is to use. From uploading your pictures to creating photo albums and having them delivered to your door, Apple makes preserving your memories fun and simple.

 

Importing Photos

The first thing you have to do is get your pictures on your Mac. To do this, you will need to hook up your digital camera to your computer. Simply take the USB cable that came with your camera and plug one end into your camera and connect the other end to your Mac. After a few seconds, iPhoto will recognize your camera and launch automatically. Your iPhoto screen will tell you that it is ready to import items.

Note: This is the same if you have a memory card reader. Just put your card into the card reader and plug your card reader into your Mac.


You will have two choices when you upload your pictures. You can erase the original images from the camera or you can just put them on your Mac. Be careful not to ignore this step because you could easily remove all the pictures from your camera by accident. If you want to keep the photos on your camera make sure you uncheck the box that says “Delete items from camera after importing.”

On this screen you can also label the album and give a description of your photos. What you type here is up to you. I tend to label my album something like “Christmas 2005” and leave the description blank. Whatever you type in here will be attached to every picture that you are uploading. So, if you have several events on one memory card it might be best to do this for each individual picture instead of the entire roll.

When you are done with this, go ahead and click the “Import” button. Now, it will take a few seconds for your pictures to upload depending on the speed of your computer and the amount of pictures you are trying to transfer. You will notice that thumbnails of your pictures appear as they are uploading. After your photos are finished uploading you are ready to dig deeper into iPhoto.

 

Editing Your Photos

There is one more iPhoto feature I want to talk about: editing your pictures. It is slightly more advanced and not all that necessary if you are just playing around with family photos, but we’ll dabble in it anyway. I am going to recommend that you learn the same way I did: trial and error. I’ll get you started, but don’t be afraid to just play around with different settings. You can always undo things that you don’t like.


Note: Before editing anything it’s important to make a copy of the picture you are working with so that you don’t lose the original. To make a copy go to Photos -> Duplicate.

The part you are going to need to play with is the advanced editing feature. To get to this you are going to want to select a picture and double-click it. The options at the bottom should change and you should see an advanced button. Click on that. Here is where you can edit the contrast, saturation, tint, brightness, etc. Play around with this buttons and figure out what they do to your picture.

Other things you might want to edit are red-eye, blemishes or what is in the picture. To eliminate red-eye click on the button and then click in the center of the affected eye. This should erase the problem. Sometimes it can also get areas surrounding the eyes, so be sure you are as precise as possible. You can always undo what you did and try again.

Retouch is another tool you’ll want to be familiar with. I have to say that I haven’t had the best results with retouch, but we’ll give it a try. Again, pick the picture you want to work with. Find the problem area and click on the retouch button. Use this tool just like a paint brush. Run it across the problem area a few times and it should be fixed. Like I said, this doesn’t always work for me, but that’s how it’s supposed to be done.

Finally, let’s play with cropping. This is one of my favorite tools because it can get rid of the silly people in the background of your pictures. Get the picture you want ready, then click and drag your mouse across it. You will notice that one area of the photo is being highlighted. Position the mouse so that you are highlighting only the part of the picture that you want to keep. Then click on crop and your photo should resize to be exactly what you want.


Adora

Sample Informative Outline

This is a sample outline for a typical informative. Use this in constructing your presentation and include where you would integrate your images for support.


Topic:
Specific Purpose:
Thesis Statement:

I. Introduction
A. Attention-Getting Step:
B. Tie to Audience:
C. Thesis & Preview: (The preview includes your three platforms)
1. Proposition One
2. Proposition Two
3. Proposition Three

(Transition into Body of Speech)

II. Prop One
A. Main Point
B. Anecdotal support
C. Sources

(Transition into Prop Two)

III. Prop Two
A. Main Point
B. Anecdotal support
C. Sources

(Transition into Prop Three)

IV. Prop Three
A. Main Point
B. Anecdotal support
C. Sources

(Transition into Conclusion)

V. Conclusion
A. Restate thesis with supporting propositions.
B. Tie back to AGS.
C. Wrap it up.

Checklist:
I have analyzed my audience on this topic & have determined they are ready for action.

I have narrowed my topic to focus upon a problem that needs to be solved with action

I have clearly stated the purpose of my speech.

My thesis statement is written as a complete declarative sentence.

My introduction focuses attention, establishes my credibility, & previews my message.

The first main point in my speech establishes the need for action.

The second main point in my speech details a plan of action that satisfies the need.

The third main point in my speech visualizes the results of action and the consequences of inaction.

My integrated visuals support my points but do not draw away from my delivery.

Audience and Proof

No message can be considered and produced without regard to the audience, not a new idea, it's one whose truth was comprehensively brought to light by Aristotle. "The orator has therefore to guess the subjects on which the hearers really hold views already, and what those views are, and then must express, as general truths, these same views on these same subjects."

No small task. This is where it comes in handy to do two things; find your own standpoint, and be open to others, seemingly a juxtaposition in task.

That's why so many resources are devoted to market research, demographic study, opinion polls, even swiping your Albertson's card. This data provide paradigms by which advertisers, evangelists and politicians can craft their messages.

Feeling vulnerable? If you're using Google's Gmail for instance, watch the relevance of the ads posted alongside the messages in your in box. Watch how these ads change in relevancy and content while you compose your next message, or open a new message. Audience analysis on a virtual intelligent level, though it's just matching terms and proper nouns, though it's working well enough to make Google billions.

Aristotle held that there are common ideas, values that give us motivation, impetus to respond based on how we feel, how strongly we're connected, how thoroughly we're convicted. Family, security, wealth, health, sex, wisdom, longevity, propriety...

What are yours? What is your standpoint?

Baseline Assessment

This rubric represents how I will be assessing your first presentation for this class.

The activity description is listed first, outcomes are next, then objectives I'm trying to reach with you through this activity, and below them is the rubric, assessment items I'll be evaluating during your presentation.

Activity
Create, rehearse and deliver a four-minute presentation introducing an aspect of your character that your audience may find surprising.

Outcomes
• Construct an applicable thesis, plan and organize its construct, research existing and new ideas for its support.
• Grab your audience’s attention.
• Analyze your audience, hopefully whatever the context.
• Identify effective speech through frequent critique and revision, rehearsal and delivery to realize a polished performance.

Point Value: 100 

Rubric

The speaker defines an attention-getting step.
(15 Points)

Effectively relates to topic

Potential to pull audience into speech

Unprepared (1-5) Accomplished (6-10) Competent (11-15)

The speaker states a clear thesis that defines the purpose of the speech.
(15 Points)

Thesis is declarative.

Unprepared (1-5) Accomplished (6-10) Competent (11-15)


The speaker identifies propositions to support their thesis.
(15 Points)

Propositions are complete and clear
.

Unprepared (1-5) Accomplished (6-10) Competent (11-15)


The speaker adapts their topic to their targeted audience.
(10 Points)

All can relate in some way to the topic.

Unprepared (1-3) Accomplished (4-7) Competent (8-10)


The speaker organizes propositions logically or chronologically.
(15 Points)

Some sense of order is displayed


Unprepared (1-5) Accomplished (6-10) Competent (11-15)


The speaker writes transitions that summarize and relate information from one point to next.
(15 Points)

Unprepared (1-5) Accomplished (6-10) Competent (11-15)


The speaker wraps their presentation with a conclusion that summarizes and relates back to the attention-getting step.
(15 Points)

Unprepared (1-5) Accomplished (6-10) Competent (11-15)